Research into the socio-economic influences of democratic participation: executive summary

Alma Economics was commissioned by the Welsh Government to examine how socio-economic factors influence an individual’s ability to participate in local democracy and run for elected office in devolved elections in Wales, focusing on the key barriers individuals face and how they might be addressed in the future. The findings will help to inform the next stages of the Welsh Government’s focus on increasing diversity in democracy.

The research study included four key stages:

• Stage 1 involved an exploratory review of academic and grey literature, policy, quantitative data, and legislation, to enhance our understanding of the issues, ground development of research materials, and identify gaps to address through this research. It also included two scoping interviews with Welsh Government policy officials.
• Stages 2 and 3 involved focus groups and interviews with experts and practitioners, including academic experts, political party representatives, and organisations that work directly to provide support and assistance to people across Wales who experience challenges due to socio-economic circumstances. In total, we engaged 19 experts and practitioners.
• Stage 4 involved online surveys and interviews with elected members, candidates, and citizens across Wales. The surveys included responses from Members of the Senedd, Local Authority councillors, town and community councillors, and candidates for each position. Interviews were held with former Senedd candidates and Local Authority, town, and community councillors.

In total, 7 current and former Senedd Members responded to the survey alongside 14 Senedd candidates. 40 current and former Local Authority councillors and 13 former candidates responded. 18 current and former town, community, and parish councillors responded alongside 4 candidates. For the citizen survey, 17 Welsh citizens responded. Interviews were conducted with 12 elected members and 7 Welsh citizens. 

All qualitative findings were thematically analysed to rigorously identify key themes and findings, whereas descriptive statistics were generated to summarise the survey findings on averages across questions.

Using the categorisation from an Equalities and Human Rights Commission report (2019), this research is structured with three categories of barriers: recruitment, resource, and reaction barriers. Main findings per category are discussed below.

Barriers to democratic participation in Wales

Recruitment barriers are defined as obstacles that prevent individuals from being encouraged, supported, or selected to stand for elected office. Our research found that:

• Experts and practitioners, elected officials, and citizens alike agreed that a lack of early political education and limited exposure to civic life are foundational recruitment barriers which greatly impact people who experience socio-economic disadvantage. This can create a “confidence gap” where people not exposed to politics view democratic participation as something not “something people like me do.”
• All groups of fieldwork participants stated that the perceived lack of transparency surrounding party selection procedures and electoral regulations deters prospective candidates. Furthermore, ‘insider knowledge’, such as being aware of upcoming retirements of incumbents, was identified by experts and practitioners as a significant privilege that is not always open to those experiencing socio-economic disadvantage.
• Experts and practitioners noted that individuals facing socio-economic disadvantage are less likely to have access to strong political networks that can support their candidacy. This is largely due to the time and transport availability required to attend Local Authority meetings, political party gatherings, and canvassing sessions, resources which are often limited for those experiencing financial hardship.

Resource barriers are limitations related to time, finances, or access to support that disproportionately hinder underrepresented individuals from successfully sustaining a candidacy.

• Across all groups of research participants, it was widely agreed that a lack of time can be a significant barrier preventing those experiencing socio-economic disadvantage from running a successful election or selection campaign. This is especially true for socio-economically disadvantaged candidates in rural constituencies, who must fund travel costs by private car, and independent candidates, who likely have to self-fund their campaign literature.
• The lack of financial support to Local Authority candidates who lose their seat (unlike the ‘Resettlement Grant’ for those losing Senedd seats) was also identified by some as having a significant impact on the likelihood of more risk-averse people experiencing socio-economic disadvantage from running, especially those with additional costs such as disabled people or people with caring responsibilities.
• One Local Authority councillor reported working at least four days a week on council business – well above the recommended 2.5 days – and noted that this is only financially viable due to having an additional source of income. Experts, practitioners, elected officials, and citizens suggested that the gap between official remuneration and the actual time commitment required contributes to the overrepresentation of older, retired, self-employed, and relatively affluent individuals among Local Authority councillors.

Reaction barriers are negative behaviours – such as discrimination, harassment, or exclusion – faced by individuals due to their protected characteristics or socio-economic status.

• Experts and practitioners raised the persistence of stereotypes and prejudice in both electorates and selectorates. They described how certain groups, such as disabled people or individuals without high-status professional backgrounds, were viewed as lacking the necessary capabilities to hold office. However, this finding was not echoed in fieldwork with elected representatives or candidates, suggesting either that elected officials did not wish to view their selection processes as inherently prejudicial or that selection processes are fair to candidates with underrepresented protected characteristics.
• All fieldwork participants agreed that hostility, both online and in person, deters many prospective candidates, especially women and those from minority backgrounds. Experts noted that financial means can mitigate these risks (for example, installing home security cameras), whereas those with limited resources feel particularly vulnerable.

Proposals to address barriers to democratic participation in Wales

Elected officials, candidates, citizens, experts, and practitioners were encouraged to suggest means of addressing the barriers faced by candidates experiencing socio-economic disadvantage in Wales. 

The main proposals to tackle recruitment barriers to democratic participation were:

• Outreach by elected officials and mentoring programmes for prospective candidates.
• Guidance to increase understanding and transparency of selection and election processes.
• Normalising democratic participation outside of elections, such as citizens' assemblies.

The main proposals to tackle resource barriers were:

• Developing a targeted fund for those with caring responsibilities, and possibly also to cover campaign-related costs including transportation, food, and safety equipment.
• A fund to support disadvantaged candidates by replacing income lost during campaigning.
• A few elected officials and candidates supported the idea of higher remuneration for Local Authority councillors and/or restructuring it to be a full-time role, although many expressed concerns regarding the public reaction to higher remuneration or stated they were remunerated sufficiently. Experts, practitioners, and citizens who participated in this research were more likely to unequivocally support increases in Local Authority councillor pay and to make it a full-time role, although some suggested that this should be done alongside a reduction in the number of councillors.

The main proposals to tackle reaction barriers were more varied:

• Participants held differing views on initiatives such as gender quotas. Some felt that these had been successful and should be continued, expanded, and mandated; however, others felt that candidates should be selected “on merit” and were uncomfortable with quotas.
• All groups engaged as part of this research offered fewer proposals for the barriers identified around abuse and hostility. Experts and practitioners believed that political parties needed to do more to reassure people of their safety, including being clearer about what would be done if something happened and the steps taken to mitigate harassment.

The aim of this research is to explore the socio-economic influences of democratic participation in Wales, with a focus on socio-economic barriers to elected office. Based on the findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are proposed. 

Recommendations to address recruitment barriers:

Recommendation 1: The Welsh Government should continue to invest in mentoring and training schemes such as Equal Power Equal Voice, but should seek to ensure these are delivered in a way conducive to rigorous impact evaluation – for example, by introducing an element of randomisation and longitudinal data collection. Any future schemes should be established with detailed criteria to ensure they reach new, more diverse, and less politically engaged audiences.

Recommendation 2: The Welsh Government should work in partnership with the Welsh Local Government Association (WLGA), councils, the Electoral Commission, political parties and other partners as appropriate, to contribute to publicly available guidance which is kept relevant and up-to-date on the processes required to run for election to community councils, Local Authorities, and the Senedd. 

Recommendation 3: The Welsh Government and relevant partners should seek to foster different ways of engaging people in democracy in Wales with the clear goals of: i) increasing public involvement in decision-making in Wales, ii) increasing public awareness of how decisions are made in Wales, iii) empowering Welsh citizens to feel confident and qualified enough to run for election in Wales. This should be done in conjunction with Welsh Government consideration of a recent Institute of Welsh Affairs report on this topic (Elias et al., 2025). Initiatives should align with or build on existing public participation strategies which Local Authorities are required to have in place, and should be evaluated to identify areas where mechanisms could be strengthened.

Recommendations to address resource barriers:

Recommendation 4: The Welsh Government, the WLGA, Local Authorities, the Senedd, and political parties should consider ways to reduce resource barriers to political activity. This could include introducing a creche at political party and Local Authority meetings, providing virtual access to all local political party meetings, and ensuring meetings can be accessed via public transport. 

Recommendation 5: The Welsh Government should scope the potential to develop a dedicated fund to support candidates with caring responsibilities and require paid-for care services for others as a result of their candidacy. A consultation should be launched to explore the specifics of this expansion, including whether vouchers for care are the correct delivery mechanism and whether unpaid care can be financially compensated. This should also consider targeted funding to offset costs incurred as a result of campaigning, including transportation, additional food expenditure, and safety equipment for candidates who experience toxicity and harassment.

Recommendation 6: The Welsh Government should seek to actively address stereotypes that may contribute to the cost of democratic participation, such as beliefs about the kind of clothing politicians should wear, or gendered expectations around makeup or hair for women. While this kind of mindset shift may be a longer-term strategic goal, in the short term this might include clarifying informal dress codes in council chambers, encouraging those conducting democratic outreach to not adhere to stereotypical expectations, and publishing guidance to challenge stereotypes and assumptions about appropriate dress or appearances.

Recommendation 7: The Welsh Government should scope the potential to introduce an employee’s “Right to Run”, which requires an employer to allow time from work for candidates to run for Local Authority and Senedd elections during the formal campaign period. This should involve engagement with trade unions, political parties, business organisations, and more. The scope should include an assessment of feasibility and potential impacts across a broad range of employers, including, but not limited to, small businesses and charities.

Recommendation 8: The Welsh Government and the WLGA should engage with businesses, the higher education sector, and others to identify ways that service to a community as an elected official can be deemed a valuable skill by employers, and that councillors are supported with their longer-term career progression and training. 

Recommendation 9: The Welsh Government should consider introducing a dedicated scheme to compensate candidates for a portion of the income they lose while running for Local Authority or Senedd elections. To keep costs manageable, this could be tied to certain requirements; for example, in Westminster elections, deposits are linked to winning at least 5% of the vote.

Recommendation 10: The Welsh Government should continue progressing the introduction of a ‘Resettlement Grant’^{[footnote 1]} for Local Authority councillors, along the lines of the model used for the Senedd.

Recommendation 11: The Welsh Government and the Democracy and Boundary Commission Cymru should consider reviewing the roles, responsibilities, and salaries of Local Authority councillors. This could include making the Local Authority councillor a full-time role with full-time pay, and could be done alongside local government reform in Wales to reduce the overall number of councillors. Alternatively, this could include strengthening job-sharing options for Local Authority councillors and more clearly defining the roles and responsibilities of councillors to ensure they do not feel expected to work more than they are remunerated for.

Recommendations to address reaction barriers:

Recommendation 12: The Welsh Government should work with the WLGA, Senedd, and other partners to build on existing evidence, including the Local Government Association’s (2022) recent call for evidence and report, by undertaking a targeted review what is already known on what works to tackle hostility, toxicity, intimidation, and abuse of elected officials and candidates. This review should seek to identify gaps and inform development of effective, evidence-informed interventions.

[1] The ‘Resettlement Grant’ refers to transitional payments to departing Members of the Senedd and Members of the House of Commons based on years of service and positions held. They bridge the financial gap between leaving office and starting new employment.

Report Authors: Alma Economics                             

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Full Research Report: Alma Economics (2025). Research into the socio-economic influences of democratic participation in Wales. Cardiff: Welsh Government, GSR report number 87/2025.

Views expressed in this report are those of the researchers and not necessarily those of the Welsh Government

For further information please contact:
Emma Wallace
Social Research and Information Division
Knowledge and Analytical Services
Welsh Government, Cathays Park
Cardiff, CF10 3NQ

Email: Research.PublicServices@gov.wales

Social research number: 87/2025
Digital ISBN: 978-1-80633-392-9

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